On March 6, 2025, shortly before International Women's Day (March 8), the Three-Child Policy Monitoring Network (hereinafter referred to as the "Monitoring Network"), a civil society organization, released a 22,000-word research report titled The Impact of the Three-Child Policy on Women's Reproductive Rights.
The report compiles the pro-natalist policies introduced by the Chinese government thus far, outlines various governmental measures to encourage childbirth, and presents the specific implementation of these policies across different regions. Notably, it identifies policies that warrant further observation and those that may pose potential issues, exposing radical tendencies and excessive enforcement in policy execution.
In addition, the report examines Chinese citizens' fertility intentions and attitudes, explores the impact of the marriage system on reproductive policies, and compares birth policies across multiple countries.
Based on these investigations and analyses, the report identifies six major new issues and potential risks, while putting forward three key guiding principles and six concrete policy recommendations.
According to Lu Miaoqing, a woman lawyer from Guangdong province and a member of the Monitoring Network, the network consists of experienced women’s rights advocates, women lawyers who have previously handled family planning cases, female journalists, NGO professionals, and others.
Members of the network have observed that since China issued the three-child policy in 2021, different levels of government have continuously introduced measures to encourage childbirth. However, some of these measures have sparked public controversy and concern.
For example, local government officials have reportedly called women of childbearing age to inquire about their reproductive plans, sent mass text messages urging childbirth, restricted access to sterilization procedures and abortion medication, and in some cases, even prepared policies encouraging Communist Party members and government officials to take the lead in having more children.
Such measures have been widely referred to by the public as “birth-pushing” policies. Since childbirth primarily affects women, these "birth-pushing" measures have significantly impacted women's reproductive autonomy.
Currently, excessive and extreme pro-natalist policies have only emerged in a few regions. However, as more policies continue to be introduced and local governments further implement them, unreasonable, unjust, and even unlawful practices are likely to increase.
Moreover, members of the Monitoring Network believe that since the family planning policy was once designated as a "fundamental national policy" and impacted multiple generations, it is difficult to predict whether the three-child pro-natalist policy might also become a "fundamental national policy" in the future—or whether it could be enforced through a "one-vote veto system," similar to how the one-child policy was strictly implemented in the past.
For this reason, it is crucial to monitor and study these developments early, assess potential trajectories in advance, and issue early warnings before problematic trends escalate.
The report was drafted by a research team based in Beijing starting in September 2024. It was developed through a review of policy documents, the collection of online information, and both online and offline interviews with women of childbearing age. By late October, the team had completed a 15,000-word initial draft.
Subsequently, the report underwent four rounds of revisions by members of the Monitoring Network and was further refined through two dedicated symposiums held in November 2024 and February 2025. The final version of the report was completed in March 2025.
Current Situation: Six Major Problems and Risks
First of all, women's reproductive autonomy is unduly restricted. One of the most pressing concerns is the restriction of women's reproductive autonomy. In several regions, including Shandong, Fujian, and Henan, men have been denied vasectomy procedures, effectively reducing women's contraceptive options. Some individuals seeking the procedure were reportedly told by medical staff:
"The government has issued an order prohibiting it."
"Since family planning policies have been relaxed, hospitals have stopped performing vasectomies."
Meanwhile, restrictions on single women accessing assisted reproductive technology (ART) remain in place, impacting a wide range of individuals, including heterosexual single women, divorced women, and sexual minority women (such as lesbians). A notable case in August 2024 drew significant media attention: a single woman’s lawsuit for the right to freeze her eggs ended in defeat.
The second alarming issue is the infringement on women's privacy. Many individuals have reported receiving unsolicited phone calls from official community office staff inquiring about their marriage plans and pregnancy intentions, which has sparked widespread public backlash. The report expresses particular concern over the risks associated with privacy breaches in the era of big data. Physiological and medical records, dating and cohabitation history, and other sensitive personal information can be easily tracked, leaked, or even sold for fraudulent purposes. The potential for misuse of such data poses a serious threat to women's rights and security.
Thirdly, the implementation of pro-natalist policies has created unequal effects between those within and outside the public sector. Individuals working in government agencies, public institutions, and state-owned enterprises (SOEs)—collectively known as the "public system" (体制内)—enjoy greater job security and more accessible maternity benefits, making them more likely to comply with birth-pushing policies. Conversely, women in the private sector (体制外) who desire multiple children face greater challenges. The disparity in employment stability and access to family-friendly policies has exacerbated social inequality, disproportionately impacting women who want to have children but lack institutional support.
The forth concern is that overzealous pro-natalist propaganda has not only intensified pressure on individuals but also provoked widespread public resentment. A striking example occurred in 2023, ahead of the Qixi Festival (Chinese Valentine's Day), when the Xi’an municipal government sent mass text messages urging childbirth:
“May your love be sweet, may you marry and have children at the right age, may you have healthy offspring. Let us build a birth-friendly society, continue the bloodline of the Chinese nation, and shoulder the responsibility of national rejuvenation together!”
This message quickly sparked ridicule across social media, with netizens responding sarcastically:
"When they need you, you're just chives（韭菜）; when they want you to give birth, they talk about bloodlines."
"Continue the bloodline of cattle and horses, shoulder the responsibility of being chives!"
The Monitoring Network anticipates that online discussions questioning the marriage system and the three-child policy will face increasing censorship. The space for open discourse on marriage and reproduction is likely to become overwhelmingly one-sided.
A clear signal of this shift appeared on January 19, 2025, when the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) launched a special campaign titled "Cleansing the 2025 Spring Festival Online Environment". This initiative targeted six key issues, with the first issue on the list being the crackdown on discussions that “deliberately promote and advocate non-marriage and non-childbearing, or oppose marriage and reproduction.”
The fifth risk is expanding “Party cadres leading by example” into nationwide enforcement. The report raises concerns about the potential transition from encouraging Party cadres to have more children to enforcing childbirth policies on the entire population. It warns that China’s One-Child Policy, used to implement for more than three decades, started with voluntary compliance among Party members, government officials, and employees of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) before gradually evolving into nationwide enforcement through intense pressure and coercion.
The sixth concern is potential dual pressures on women from traditionally high-fertility groups, such as rural women and women from certain religious communities. These groups already experience strong societal and cultural expectations to bear multiple children. The report raises a key question: Will the combination of state pro-natalist policies and traditional expectations further erode these women's reproductive autonomy?
Reflection: Boosting Birth Rates Must Not Come at the Expense of Women's Rights
The report argues that any effort to increase birth rates must be based on respecting women's rights and ensuring fair development opportunities.
First and foremost, the report firmly states that violating women's rights in the name of boosting fertility is unjust, unethical, and illegal. According to China’s international commitments and domestic laws, reproduction is a right, not an obligation. Women have the right to bear children, but they also have the freedom not to.
Secondly, the report emphasizes that forcing childbirth through coercion or pressure, restricting access to contraception and abortion, can have severe consequences for women. Such policies could push women into pregnancies and childbirth before they are ready, disrupting their education, career plans, family financial stability, and child-rearing arrangements. Additionally, women may be forced into becoming single mothers against their will, or in more extreme cases, resort to unsafe and expensive underground abortion procedures, endangering their health and lives.
In recent years, some arguments have emerged claiming that low birth rates will lead to labor shortages and economic decline. In response to these concerns, the report presents its third key reflection: low birth rates are not as alarming as they are often portrayed.
The report cites examples of small-population countries that have achieved remarkable economic success. Israel, with a population of just over 9 million, is a global leader in high-tech industries. Switzerland, home to 8 million people, and Finland, with only 5 million people, maintain strong positions in the global economy through advanced manufacturing and technological innovation.
China's current per capita GDP lags significantly behind these nations, indicating enormous room for growth. The report argues that China can achieve high-quality economic development by improving per capita productivity, rather than relying on sheer population expansion.
The report asserts that enhancing productivity is a far more realistic and effective strategy than restricting women’s reproductive autonomy to boost population numbers, even only from a purely pragmatic perspective.
Fourthly, the report argues that pro-natalist policies are unlikely to achieve significant success given the cultural and technological realities of contemporary society. Violating women's rights for the sake of a pro-natalist goal that is unlikely to succeed is even more unjustifiable. South Korea and Japan have implemented birth-encouragement policies for years, yet their fertility rates continue to hit record lows. Even in high-welfare countries like France and Sweden, where governments provide generous childcare subsidies, equal parental leave for men and women, and free daycare services, fertility rates still fluctuate between 1.5 and 1.9 children per woman—a relatively modest impact despite extensive support systems.
The report also highlights a historical case of forced pro-natalism that failed spectacularly: Romania’s 1966 Decree 770, which banned contraception and abortion to force women to have more children. Although the birth rate initially spiked, it quickly plummeted again, making it one of the most notorious examples of a failed population policy.
Recommendations: Prioritizing National Factors
The report recommends that China’s population and fertility policies should adhere to key guiding principles. The first principle is to respect individual choice and reproductive autonomy, and balance policy goals with personal rights.
The second principle is to prioritize national factors, as they are more manageable while global, regional, and cultural influences on fertility trends are difficult to reverse. The report identifies several critical national factors that should be prioritized: addressing the historical consequences of the One-Child Policy, promoting workplace gender equality and increasing male participation in childcare, improving marriage and family systems.
The report's third guiding principle emphasizes the need to focus on individuals who wish to have children but face barriers preventing them from doing so. Efforts should be directed toward removing social, economic, and institutional obstacles that hinder their reproductive choices and helping them fulfill their desire to have children. Instead of forcing those who do not want children to give birth or pressuring individuals who do not wish to have multiple children to have more, policies should prioritize enabling and supporting those who already have a willingness to start or expand their families.
At the specific policy level, the report puts forward six major recommendations, with the first being the removal of existing regulations, restrictions, or bans that infringe on individual reproductive autonomy. For instance, the report calls for eliminating birth quotas, such as restrictions on having only "two" or "three" children. And it calls for lifting excessive restrictions on abortion medication, ending excessive limitations on abortion procedures and sterilization surgeries, abolishing the ban on single women accessing assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
Secondly, the report details measures to address the historical legacy of the One-Child Policy, such as providing support programs for the thousands of bereaved single-child families affected by the Wenchuan earthquake, fulfilling the One-Child Policy's promise of "government-supported elderly care," refunding fines imposed for "excess births" or the collected social maintenance fees, and achieving social reconciliation on family planning issues.
The report's third specific policy recommendation focuses on ensuring employment equality and protecting women's right to work and career development. For example, the government should support and encourage civil society organizations, law firms, and public interest lawyers in monitoring employment discrimination and providing legal aid. Additionally, in public sector recruitment, women should be given priority under equal conditions.
The fourth specific recommendation revolves around childcare support services, including increasing childcare subsidies for low-income families, supporting civil society organizations—especially parent groups—in supervising childcare institutions, encouraging and incentivizing large and medium-sized employers to establish childcare facilities, and expanding the adoption of flexible work arrangements.
The fifth recommendation focuses on strengthening rights protection and social security. Specific measures include penalizing privacy violations such as unsolicited "birth-pushing" phone calls, expanding social security coverage to include unemployed women, and allowing women to access their husband's maternity insurance benefits.
The sixth recommendation suggests that the government should adapt to shifting social attitudes, avoid stigmatizing those who choose to have fewer or no children so that public resistance to pro-natalist policies can be reduced. It advocates for promoting shared parenting responsibilities between men and women, including extending paternity leave, caregiver leave, and parental leave for fathers. Additionally, it calls for improving the marriage system, supporting diverse family structures, fostering a society that is inclusive of children born out of wedlock and children of same-sex parents, and ensuring these children are protected from discrimination.
Full Chinese report: 三孩催生政策对妇女生育权影响研究报告.pdf
AI-translated English report: Three-Child Policy Report_English.pdf
